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      <title>Water Resources Research</title>
      <link>http://www.agu.org/journals/wr</link>
      <description><![CDATA[Published during last 7 days for Water Resources Research]]></description>
      <language>en-us</language>
      <copyright>AGU</copyright>
      <docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
      <webMaster>webmaster@agu.org</webMaster>
      <item>
         <title>Flow over rough mobile beds: Friction factor and vertical distribution of the longitudinal mean velocity</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011126</link>
         <description><![CDATA[The main objective of the present study is to identify the impacts of bed mobility on the vertical profile of the mean longitudinal velocity and on resistance in flows over water-worked beds of poorly sorted mixtures of sand and gravel. Water-worked beds with sediment transport are explicitly distinguished from immobile beds with imposed sediment feed. Flows with different equilibrium sediment transport rates are generated in a laboratory flume. The initial bed mixtures featured combinations of sand and gravel modes. Data collection included instantaneous velocities measured with Laser Doppler Annemometry. Wall similarity, in the sense of Townsend (1976), is assumed. The parameters of the formulae are discussed within three scenarios comprising different definitions of u* and ks combined with different conceptions of the Von Kármán constant (κ flow independent or flow dependent). It is shown that the parameters of the formulae that express the velocity profile vary with the Shields number and with the initial bed composition. The variation is independent of the adopted scenario, except in what concerns the formulation of hydraulic smoothening in the presence of sand sizes, which depends on the definition of ks.]]></description>
         <author>Rui M. L. Ferreira, Mário J. Franca, João G. A. B. Leal and António H. Cardoso</author>
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         <title>Reference evapotranspiration change and the causes across the Yellow River Basin during 1957–2008 and their spatial and seasonal differences</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010724</link>
         <description><![CDATA[As an indicator of atmospheric evaporating capability over a hypothetical reference surface, reference evapotranspiration (ET0) is the most important hydrological and meteorological variable to reflect climate change. This is particularly true for the Yellow River Basin, which faces serious water shortages and is vulnerable to climate change. In this study, the ET0 at 80 sites during 1957–2008 in the Yellow River Basin was calculated using the Penman-Monteith method with the calibrated Angstrom coefficients. Spatial and seasonal patterns of changes in ET0 as well as the concerned climatic variables are specially focused on using advanced statistical tests and GIS method. The entire Yellow River Basin is characterized by complicated spatial variability in the change of ET0. Significant negative trends are mainly distributed in the southeast corner, northern side, and midwest of the Yellow River Basin, while significant increases of ET0 mainly occur in the middle part and southwest corner of the basin. Still, no coherent spatial patterns in ET0 trends are seen in any season. The dominance of warming trends in temperature and decreasing trends in wind speed and sunshine duration can be found in the basin. Relative humidity presents insignificant or weak trends at many sites but with a mixed spatial structure of positive and negative trends at both annual and seasonal scales. The combined effects of climatic variables to ET0 changes and their spatial and seasonal variability are revealed by further analysis of sensitivity of ET0 to climatic variables and the contribution of climatic variables to ET0 changes over six homogenous regions identified by a rotated empirical orthogonal function (REOF) clustering method on annual and seasonal scales. The decline of surface wind speed offsets the increasing effect of the temperature increase and is mainly responsible for the ET0 reduction in the west and north of the Loess Plateau. The reduced sunshine duration is the leading factor for ET0 decrease in the middle-lower Yellow River Plain, especially during the summer time. The increasing mean temperature plays the most important role in the ET0 increase in the source area of the Yellow River Basin. Furthermore, regional actual evapotranspiration and ET0 present complementary behavior, but does not accurately fall in the 1:1 complementary relationship of the Bouchet's hypothesis, especially for the high elevation subregions. In addition, although precipitation changes are the main driving factors for drought variation, increasing ET0 intensified the drought in middle regions.]]></description>
         <author>Weiguang Wang, Quanxi Shao, Shizhang Peng, Wanqiu Xing, Tao Yang, Yufeng Luo, Bin Yong and Junzeng Xu</author>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>A field proof-of-concept of aquifer imaging using 3-D transient hydraulic tomography with modular, temporarily-emplaced equipment</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011704</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Hydraulic tomography is a field scale aquifer characterization method capable of estimating 3-D heterogeneous parameter distributions, and is directly sensitive to hydraulic conductivity (K), thus providing a useful data source for improving flow and transport models. We present results from a proof-of-concept field and modeling study in which we apply 3-D transient hydraulic tomography (3DTHT) to the relatively high-K and moderately heterogeneous unconfined aquifer at the Boise Hydrogeophysical Research Site. Short-duration (20 min) partially penetrating pumping tests, for which observed responses do not reach steady state, are used as the aquifer stimulation. To collect field data, we utilize a system of temporarily emplaced packer equipment to isolate multiple discrete intervals in boreholes. To analyze the data, we utilize MODFLOW combined with geostatistical inversion code based on the quasilinear approach of Kitanidis (1995). This combination of practical software allows inversion of large datasets (>250 drawdown curves, and almost 1000 individual data points) and estimation of K at >100,000 locations; reasonable runtimes are obtained using a single multicore computer with 12 GB of RAM. The K heterogeneity results from 3DTHT are cross-validated against K characterization from a large set of partially penetrating slug tests, and found to be quite consistent. The use of portable, modular equipment for field implementation means that 3DTHT data collection can be performed (including mobilization/demobilization) within a matter of days. Likewise, use of a practical, efficient and scalable numerical modeling and inversion strategy means that computational effort is drastically reduced, such that 3-D aquifer property distributions can be estimated quickly.]]></description>
         <author>M. Cardiff, W. Barrash and P. K. Kitanidis</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Effect of storm movement on flood peaks: Analysis framework based on characteristic timescales</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011761</link>
         <description><![CDATA[The aim of this paper is to investigate, in general terms, the effects of storm movement on the resulting flood peaks, and the underlying process controls. For this purpose, we utilize a broad theoretical framework that uses characteristic time and space scales associated with stationary rainstorms as well as moving rainstorms. For a stationary rainstorm the characteristic timescales that govern the peak response include two intrinsic timescales of a catchment and one extrinsic timescale of a rainstorm. On the other hand, for a moving rainstorm, two additional extrinsic scales are required, the storm travel time and storm size. The relationship between the peak response and the timescales appropriate for a stationary rainstorm can be extended in a straightforward manner to describe the peak response for a moving rainstorm. However, the interdependence between rainfall duration and storm travel time makes the behavior of the peak response for a moving rainstorm fundamentally different from that of a stationary rainstorm. We show that the relationship between peak response and characteristic timescales also depends on the relative size of the rainstorm with respect to catchment size. For moving rainstorms, we show that the augmentation of peak response arises from both the effect of overlaying the responses from subcatchments (resonance condition) and the effect of increased responses from subcatchments due to increased duration (interdependence), which results in maximum peak response when the moving rainstorm is slower than the channel flow velocity.]]></description>
         <author>Yongwon Seo, Arthur R. Schmidt and Murugesu Sivapalan</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Tracking colloid transport in real pore structures: Comparisons with correlation equations and experimental observations</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012WR011847</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Accurate prediction of colloid transport in porous media under environmentally relevant conditions requires incorporation of complex pore geometries into particle trajectory simulations. Advances in pore structure characterization and numeric flow simulations have the potential to take real pore geometries into account. In this work, a scheme was developed to extract pore structures (grain radii and center positions) from X-ray microtomography images of glass beads. Lattice Boltzmann flow simulations were performed to derive flow fields in pore spaces. On the basis of the derived flow fields, particle tracking was carried out in the absence of an energy barrier to deposition and under a wide range of colloid size and flow conditions. Simulated depositions agree reasonably well with predictions by applicable correlation equations and experimental observations at groundwater flow regimes, indicating that the particle tracking algorithm is able to simulate colloid trajectories in porous media with reasonable accuracy in the absence of an energy barrier and may also be able to do so in the presence of an energy barrier (which is more environmentally relevant). The simulated depositions are much greater than both predicted and experimentally observed values at high fluid velocities (>1 × 10−3 m s−1). Simulations under selected unfavorable conditions at groundwater flow regimes indicated that temporary retention of colloids by low-flow zones in pore spaces could play a predominant role in colloid removal at low ionic strengths. As the ionic strength increases (deposition condition becomes less unfavorable), the contribution of temporary retention to overall removal decreases.]]></description>
         <author>Zhelong Li, Dongxiao Zhang and Xiqing Li</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Less water: How will agriculture in Southern Mountain states adapt?</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011057</link>
         <description><![CDATA[This study examined how agriculture in six southwestern states might adapt to large reductions in water supplies, using the U.S. Agricultural Resource Model (USARM), a multiregion, multicommodity agricultural sector model. In the simulation, irrigation water supplies were reduced 25% in five Southern Mountain (SM) states and by 5% in California. USARM results were compared to those from a “rationing” model, which assumes no input substitution or changes in water use intensity, relying on land fallowing as the only means of adapting to water scarcity. The rationing model also ignores changes in output prices. Results quantify the importance of economic adjustment mechanisms and changes in output prices. Under the rationing model, SM irrigators lose $65 in net income. Compared to this price exogenous, “land-fallowing only” response, allowing irrigators to change cropping patterns, practice deficit irrigation, and adjust use of other inputs reduced irrigator costs of water shortages to $22 million. Allowing irrigators to pass on price increases to purchasers reduced income losses further, to $15 million. Higher crop prices from reduced production imposed direct losses of $130 million on first purchasers of crops, which include livestock and dairy producers, and cotton gins. SM agriculture, as a whole, was resilient to the water supply shock, with production of high value specialty crops along the Lower Colorado River little affected. Particular crops were vulnerable however. Cotton production and net returns fell substantially, while reductions in water devoted to alfalfa accounted for 57% of regional water reduction.]]></description>
         <author>George B. Frisvold and Kazim Konyar</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Influence of rock fragment coverage on soil erosion and hydrological response: Laboratory flume experiments and modeling</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011255</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Two laboratory flume experiments on the effect of surface rock fragments on precipitation-driven soil erosion yields were carried out. The total sediment concentration, the concentration of seven individual size classes, and the flow discharge were measured. Digital terrain models (DTMs) were generated before and after one of the experiments. The results revealed that the rock fragments protected the soils from raindrop detachment and retarded the overland flow, therefore decreasing its sediment transport capacity. Rock fragments were found to affect selectively the different size classes in a manner that changed according to the time scale. For short times, the rock fragment coverage reduced erosion of the finer particles (<20 μm). For the midsize classes the protection decreased, while erosion of the larger size classes (>100 μm) was unaffected. At long times the rock fragment cover decreased the concentration of the individual size classes in proportion to effective rainfall intensity and the area exposed to raindrops. An area-based modification of the Hairsine and Rose (H-R) soil erosion model was employed to analyze the experimental data. The H-R model predictions agreed well with the measured sediment concentrations when high rainfall intensity and low rock fragment cover were used. Predictions were instead less accurate with low rainfall intensity and high rock fragment cover. The DTM results showed that the presence of rock fragments on the soil surface led to increased soil compaction, perhaps due to higher soil moisture content (from greater infiltration) within the rock fragment-covered flumes.]]></description>
         <author>S. Jomaa, D. A. Barry, B. C. P. Heng, A. Brovelli, G. C. Sander and J.-Y. Parlange</author>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>On the distributions of seasonal river flows: Lognormal or power law?</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011308</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Distributional analysis of river discharge time series is an important task in many areas of hydrological engineering, including optimal design of water storage and drainage networks, management of extreme events, risk assessment for water supply, and environmental flow management, among many others. Having diverging moments, heavy-tailed power law distributions have attracted widespread attention, especially for the modeling of the likelihood of extreme events such as floods and droughts. However, straightforward distributional analysis does not connect well with the complicated dynamics of river flows, including fractal and multifractal behavior, chaos-like dynamics, and seasonality. To better reflect river flow dynamics, we propose to carry out distributional analysis of river flow time series according to three “flow seasons”: dry, wet, and transitional. We present a concrete statistical procedure to partition river flow data into three such seasons and fit data in these seasons using two types of distributions, power law and lognormal. The latter distribution is a salient property of the cascade multiplicative multifractal model, which is among the best models for turbulence and rainfall. We show that while both power law and lognormal distributions are relevant to dry seasons, river flow data in wet seasons are typically better fitted by lognormal distributions than by power law distributions.]]></description>
         <author>M. C. Bowers, W. W. Tung and J. B. Gao</author>
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         <title>Intercomparing hillslope hydrological dynamics: Spatio-temporal variability and vegetation cover effects</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011196</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Generalizable process knowledge on hillslope hydrological dynamics is still very poor, yet indispensable for numerous theoretical and practical applications. To gain insight into the organization of hillslope hydrological dynamics we intercompared 90 observations of shallow water table dynamics at three neighboring large-scale (33 × 75 m) hillslopes with similar slope, aspect, curvature, geologic, and pedologic properties but differences in vegetation cover (grassland, coniferous forest, and mixed forest) over a time period of 9 months. High-resolution measurements of water table fluctuations, rainfall, and discharge in the creek at the foot of all hillslopes allowed a good system characterization. The aim of this study was to explore the spatio-temporal variability of water table fluctuations within and between hillslopes, the effect of event and antecedent characteristics on the observed dynamics, and how the hillslope subsurface flow (SSF) response is reflected in the runoff response. To intercompare the SSF behavior we conducted an event-based analysis of the percentage of well activation, several metrics characterizing the shape and timing of the water table response curves, rainfall characteristics, antecedent wetness conditions, and several runoff response metrics. The analysis reveals that there are distinct differences in SSF response between the grassland hillslope and the forested hillslopes, with a lower frequency of well activation and absolute water table rise at the grassland hillslope. Second, spatial patterns of water table dynamics differ between wet fall/winter/spring (predominantly saturation of the lower part of the hillslope, weaker water table response, and slower response times) and dry summer conditions (whole-hillslope activation but higher spatial variability, generally stronger water table dynamics, and quicker response times). The observed seasonally changing water table dynamics suggest the development of a preferential flow network during high-intensity rainstorms under dry summer conditions. Third, catchment runoff is strongly driven by hillslope dynamics, yet contrasting hydrographs during events with similar hillslope dynamics indicate the influence of additional processes. Overall, the observed high spatio-temporal variability of seemingly homogeneous hillslopes calls for rethinking of current monitoring strategies and developing and testing new conceptual models of hillslope hydrologic processes.]]></description>
         <author>S. Bachmair, M. Weiler and P. A. Troch</author>
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         <title>Incorporation of water vapor transfer in the JULES land surface model: Implications for key soil variables and land surface fluxes</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011811</link>
         <description><![CDATA[This study focuses on the mechanisms underlying water and heat transfer in upper soil layers, and their effects on soil physical prognostic variables and the individual components of the energy balance. The skill of the JULES (Joint UK Environment Simulator) land surface model (LSM) to simulate key soil variables, such as soil moisture content and surface temperature, and fluxes such as evaporation, is investigated. The Richards equation for soil water transfer, as used in most LSMs, was updated by incorporating isothermal and thermal water vapor transfer. The model was tested for three sites representative of semiarid and temperate arid climates: the Jornada site (New Mexico, USA), Griffith site (Australia), and Audubon site (Arizona, USA). Water vapor flux was found to contribute significantly to the water and heat transfer in the upper soil layers. This was mainly due to isothermal vapor diffusion; thermal vapor flux also played a role at the Jornada site just after rainfall events. Inclusion of water vapor flux had an effect on the diurnal evolution of evaporation, soil moisture content, and surface temperature. The incorporation of additional processes, such as water vapor flux among others, into LSMs may improve the coupling between the upper soil layers and the atmosphere, which in turn could increase the reliability of weather and climate predictions.]]></description>
         <author>Raquel Garcia Gonzalez, Anne Verhoef, Pier Luigi Vidale and Isabelle Braud</author>
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      <item>
         <title>New 3-D flow interpolation method on moving ADCP data</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR010867</link>
         <description><![CDATA[A simple but accurate interpolation procedure for obtaining the three-dimensional distribution of three-component velocity data, from moving acoustic doppler current profiler (ADCP) observation data, is proposed. For understanding actual flow structure within a river with complex bathymetry, the three-dimensional mean velocity field provides a basic picture of the flow. For obtaining the three-dimensional distribution of three-component velocity data, in this work, anisotropic gridding was introduced in order to remove the random component of measured velocity data caused by the turbulence of the flow and measurement error. A continuity correction based on the pressure equation was used to reduce both random and systematic errors. The accuracy of the developed method was evaluated using three-dimensional flow simulation data from a detached-eddy simulation (DES). By using the procedure developed, the complex flow structure surrounding the spur dikes section in the Uji River was successfully visualized and explored. The proposed method shows superiorities in both accuracy and consistency for the interpolated velocity field, as compared to the kriging and inverse-distance weighted (IDW) methods.]]></description>
         <author>R. Tsubaki, Y. Kawahara, Y. Muto and I. Fujita</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Inverse groundwater modeling with emphasis on model parameterization</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011068</link>
         <description><![CDATA[This study develops an inverse method aiming to circumvent the subjective decision regarding model parameterization and complexity in inverse groundwater modeling. The number of parameters is included as a decision variable along with parameter values. A parameterization based on B-spline surfaces (BSS) is selected to approximate transmissivity, and genetic algorithms were selected to perform error minimization. A transform based on linear least squares (LLS) is developed, so that different parameterizations may be combined by standard genetic algorithm operators. First, three applications, with isotropic, anisotropic, and zoned aquifer parameters, are examined in a single objective optimization problem and the estimated transmissivity is found to be near the true one. Interestingly, in the anisotropic case, the algorithm converged to a solution with an anisotropic distribution of control points. Next, a single objective optimization with regularization, penalizing complex models, is considered, and last, the problem is expressed in a multiobjective optimization framework (MOO), where the goals are simultaneous minimization of calibration error and model complexity. The result of MOO is a Pareto set of potential solutions where the user can examine the tradeoffs between calibration error and model complexity and select the most suitable model. By comparing calibration with prediction errors, it appears, that the most promising models are the ones near a region where the rate of decrease of calibration error as model complexity increases drops (bend of error curve). This is a useful result of practical interest in real inverse modeling applications.]]></description>
         <author>George Kourakos and Aristotelis Mantoglou</author>
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         <title>On estimating functional average breakthrough curve using time-warping technique and perturbation approach</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011506</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Simulated contaminant breakthrough curves (BTC) are often used to predict mass arrival at compliance boundaries at waste storage sites. In numerical simulations that involve uncertainties on input parameters such as randomly heterogeneous rock properties, Monte Carlo simulations are commonly utilized and the mean breakthrough curve is often calculated from the arithmetic average of all realizations. The arithmetic mean breakthrough curve in general overestimates the mass flow rate at early and late time but underestimates the peak mass flow rate. The averaged breakthrough curve usually does not resemble any of individual breakthrough curves. The reason is that BTCs vary not only on amplitude but also on dynamics (time) and therefore it is not appropriate to take the arithmetic average directly. In this study, we consider each BTC as a random curve, and use time-warping techniques to align all curves in a time-warped space, compute the sample mean of the curves in the time-warped space, and transform the means back to the original time space. We show that all BTCs are aligned based on the percentile of mass reaching the compliance boundary, and the functional average is the percentile average of all BTCs. The confidence interval of the sample mean curve is estimated using the perturbation approach. The functional average provides an additional metric that can be used to characterize the breakthrough behavior in addition to more traditional median and arithmetic average curves. The method is illustrated using transport simulations at the Material Disposal Area G, Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in New Mexico.]]></description>
         <author>Zhiming Lu and Philip H. Stauffer</author>
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      <item>
         <title>On the use of spatially discrete data to compute energy and mass balance</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012WR012061</link>
         <description><![CDATA[In many practical applications the state of field soils is monitored by recording the evolution of temperature and soil moisture at discrete depths. We theoretically investigate the systematic errors that arise when mass and energy balances are computed directly from these measurements. We show that, even with no measurement or model errors, large residuals might result when finite difference approximations are used to compute fluxes and storage term. To calculate the limits set by the use of spatially discrete measurements on the accuracy of balance closure, we derive an analytical solution to estimate the residual on the basis of the two key parameters: the penetration depth and the distance between the measurements. When the thickness of the control layer for which the balance is computed is comparable to the penetration depth of the forcing (which depends on the thermal diffusivity and on the forcing period) large residuals arise. The residual is also very sensitive to the distance between the measurements, which requires accurately controlling the position of the sensors in field experiments. We also demonstrate that, for the same experimental setup, mass residuals are sensitively larger than the energy residuals due to the nonlinearity of the moisture transport equation. Our analysis suggests that a careful assessment of the systematic mass error introduced by the use of spatially discrete data is required before using fluxes and residuals computed directly from field measurements.]]></description>
         <author>Ivan Lunati, Francesco Ciocca and Marc B. Parlange</author>
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      <item>
         <title>On the effects of seasonality on soil water balance and plant growth</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011263</link>
         <description><![CDATA[The partitioning of rainfall into evapotranspiration, runoff, and deep infiltration in seasonally dry climates is influenced by strong temporal variability in rainfall and potential evapotranspiration at the intra-annual scale, which cannot be captured by conventional steady state water balance models. Guided by dimensional analysis and using simplified stochastic soil moisture models, we develop analytical expressions describing the annual partitioning of rainfall into evapotranspiration and deep percolation/runoff in seasonally dry, surface water dependent landscapes. We discuss the related changes to Budyko's curve under different seasonality scenarios, showing that an increase in seasonal rainfall and potential evapotranspiration variability as well as dry season length can lead to a decrease in the annual evapotranspiration ratio. In addition, our model shows that although increased soil water storage can compensate for the decrease in evapotranspiration due to climate seasonality, this effect is more marked in drier climates (higher annual dryness index) compared to wetter climates. Finally, the coupling of the soil moisture model to a minimalist plant growth model shows that in seasonally dry climates, a maximum in biomass is to be expected for a wet season of optimal length, for which the limitations imposed by both water availability and growth duration are at a minimum.]]></description>
         <author>Xue Feng, Giulia Vico and Amilcare Porporato</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Step changes in the flood frequency curve: Process controls</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011187</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Empirical distribution functions of flood peaks in small catchments sometimes show discontinuities in the slope; that is, the largest flood peaks are significantly larger than the rest of the record. The aim of this paper is to understand whether these discontinuities, or step changes, can be a consistent effect of hydrological processes. We conducted field surveys in two Austrian alpine catchments 73 km2 in size to map the spatial patterns of surface runoff generation and hydrogeologic storage. On the basis of this information, we selected the parameters of a distributed continuous runoff model, which is designed to simulate well the point when the storage capacity of the catchment is exhausted. Then we calibrated a stochastic rainfall model and performed Monte Carlo simulations of runoff to generate flood frequency curves for the two catchments. The curves exhibit a step change around a return period of 30 years. An analysis of the storage capacities suggests that this step change is due to a threshold of storage capacity being exceeded, which causes fast surface runoff in large parts of the catchments. The threshold occurs when the storage within the catchment is spatially rather uniform. To identify step changes, reliable estimates of the catchment storage capacity are needed on the basis of detailed hydrogeological information. The occurrence of a step change is of importance for estimating low-probability floods since the flood estimates with the step change accounted for can be significantly different from those based on commonly used distribution functions. We therefore suggest that step changes in the flood frequency curve of small catchments can be real and their possible presence should be taken into account in design flood estimation.]]></description>
         <author>M. Rogger, H. Pirkl, A. Viglione, J. Komma, B. Kohl, R. Kirnbauer, R. Merz and G. Blöschl</author>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>Catchment mixing processes and travel time distributions</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011160</link>
         <description><![CDATA[This work focuses on the description and the use of the probability density functions (pdfs) of travel, residence and evapotranspiration times, which are comprehensive descriptors of the fate of rainfall water particles traveling through catchments, and provide key information on hydrologic flowpaths, partitioning of precipitation, circulation and turnover of pollutants. Exploiting some analytical solutions to the transport problem derived by Botter et al. (2011), this paper analyzes the features of travel, residence and evapotranspiration time pdfs resulting from different assumptions on the mixing processes occurring during streamflow formation and plant uptake (namely, complete mixing and translatory flow). The ensuing analytical solutions are analyzed through numerical Monte Carlo simulations of a stochastic model of soil moisture and streamflow dynamics. Travel and residence time pdfs are shown to be time-variant as they mirror the variability of the relevant hydrological fluxes. In particular, the temporal fluctuations of the mean residence time are shown to reflect rainfall dynamics, whereas the variability of the mean travel time is chiefly driven by streamflow dynamics, with lower frequency and higher amplitude fluctuations. Dry climates enhance the effect of the type of mixing on catchment transport features (e.g., mean travel times and seasonal dynamics of stream concentrations). The implications for the interpretation of tracer experiments are also discussed, showing through specific examples that models disregarding nonstationarity may significantly misestimate travel time pdfs.]]></description>
         <author>Gianluca Botter</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Responses of annual runoff, evaporation, and storage change to climate variability at the watershed scale</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011444</link>
         <description><![CDATA[In this study, the impact of interannual variability of soil water storage change on the annual water balance is assessed for 277 watersheds located in a spectrum of climate regions. The annual water storage change is quantified on the basis of water balance closure given the available data of precipitation, runoff, and evaporation estimated from remote sensing data and meteorology reanalysis. The responses of annual runoff, evaporation, and storage change to the interannual variability of precipitation and potential evaporation are then analyzed. Both runoff and evaporation sensitivities to potential evaporation are higher under energy-limited conditions, but storage change seems to be more sensitive to potential evaporation under the conditions in which water and energy are balanced. Runoff sensitivity to precipitation is higher under energy-limited conditions, but both evaporation and storage change sensitivities to precipitation are higher under water-limited conditions. Therefore, under energy-limited conditions, most of the precipitation variability is transferred to runoff variability, but under water-limited conditions, most of the precipitation variability is transferred to storage change, and some of the precipitation variability is transferred to evaporation variability. The main finding is that evaporation variability will be overestimated by assuming negligible storage change in annual water balance, particularly under water-limited conditions.]]></description>
         <author>Dingbao Wang and Negin Alimohammadi</author>
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         <title>Continuous measurements of flow rate in a shallow gravel-bed river by a new acoustic system</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012WR012064</link>
         <description><![CDATA[The continuous measurement of river discharge for long periods of time is crucial in water resource studies. However, the accurate estimation of river discharge is a difficult and labor-intensive procedure; thus, a robust and efficient method of measurement is required. Continuous measurements of flowrate have been carried out in a wide, shallow gravel bed river (water depth ≈ 0.6 m under low-flow conditions, width ≈ 115 m) using Fluvial Acoustic Tomography System (FATS) that has 25 kHz broadband transducers with horizontally omnidirectional and vertically hemispherical beam patterns. Reciprocal sound transmissions were performed between the two acoustic stations located diagonally on both sides of the river. The horizontal distance between the transducers was 301.96 m. FATS enabled the measurement of the depth- and range-averaged sound speed and flow velocity along the ray path. In contrast to traditional point/transect measurements of discharge, in a fraction of a second, FATS covers the entire cross section of river in a single measurement. The flow rates measured by FATS were compared to those estimated by moving boat Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) and rating curve (RC) methods. FATS estimates were in good agreement with ADCP estimates over a range of 20 to 65 m3 s−1. The RMS of residual between the two measurements was 2.41 m3 s−1. On the other hand the flowrate by RC method fairly agreed with FATS estimates for greater discharges than around 40 m3 s−1. This inconsistency arises from biased RC estimates in low flows. Thus, the flow rates derived from FATS could be considered reliable.]]></description>
         <author>K. Kawanisi, M. Razaz, K. Ishikawa, J. Yano and M. Soltaniasl</author>
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      <item>
         <title>Effective diffusivity and mass flux across the sediment-water interface in streams</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011148</link>
         <description><![CDATA[The exchange of water between a stream and its hyporheic zone (defined as the sediment beneath and immediately adjacent to a stream) underpins many ecological and hydrological functions in turbulent streams. Hyporheic exchange can be parameterized in terms of an effective diffusion coefficient Deff and considerable effort has gone into developing process-based models and empirical correlations for predicting the value of this transport parameter. In this paper we demonstrate previous laboratory estimates for Deff can be biased by as much as a factor of 10, due to errors in the equations and/or ambiguities in the variables used to reduce data from transient tracer experiments in flow-through and recirculating flumes. After correcting these problems, an analysis of 93 previously published flume experiments reveals Deff depends on properties of the tracer (molecular diffusivity), flow field (shear velocity, kinematic viscosity), and sediment bed (permeability and depth). The shear velocity depends implicitly on the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, which captures the influence of bed roughness and bed forms on hyporheic exchange in both laboratory and field studies. The dependence of Deff on sediment bed depth is consistent with the hypothesis that coherent turbulence in the water column drives mass transport across the sediment-water interface. Furthermore, the dependence of Deff on sediment bed depth raises the possibility that hyporheic exchange rates measured in the laboratory are not representative of hyporheic exchange rates in the field.]]></description>
         <author>Stanley B. Grant, Michael J. Stewardson and Ivan Marusic</author>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>Comment on “Evaporation from soils under thermal boundary conditions: Experimental and modeling investigation to compare equilibrium and nonequilibrium based approaches,” by Kathleen M. Smits, Abdullah Cihan, Toshihiro Sakaki, and Tissa H. Illangasekare</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011393</link>
         <description/>
         <author>Michael D. Novak</author>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>Reply to comment by Michael D. Novak on “Evaporation from soils under thermal boundary conditions: Experimental and modeling investigation to compare equilibrium and nonequilibrium based approaches”</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011609</link>
         <description/>
         <author>Kathleen M. Smits, Abdullah Cihan, Viet V. Ngo and Tissa H. Illangasekare</author>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>Crash testing hydrological models in contrasted climate conditions: An experiment on 216 Australian catchments</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011721</link>
         <description><![CDATA[This paper investigates the actual extrapolation capacity of three hydrological models in differing climate conditions. We propose a general testing framework, in which we perform series of split-sample tests, testing all possible combinations of calibration-validation periods using a 10 year sliding window. This methodology, which we have called the generalized split-sample test (GSST), provides insights into the model's transposability over time under various climatic conditions. The three conceptual rainfall-runoff models yielded similar results over a set of 216 catchments in southeast Australia. First, we assessed the model's efficiency in validation using a criterion combining the root-mean-square error and bias. A relation was found between this efficiency and the changes in mean rainfall (P) but not with changes in mean potential evapotranspiration (PE) or air temperature (T). Second, we focused on average runoff volumes and found that simulation biases are greatly affected by changes in P. Calibration over a wetter (drier) climate than the validation climate leads to an overestimation (underestimation) of the mean simulated runoff. We observed different magnitudes of these models deficiencies depending on the catchment considered. Results indicate that the transfer of model parameters in time may introduce a significant level of errors in simulations, meaning increased uncertainty in the various practical applications of these models (flow simulation, forecasting, design, reservoir management, climate change impact assessments, etc.). Testing model robustness with respect to this issue should help better quantify these uncertainties.]]></description>
         <author>L. Coron, V. Andréassian, C. Perrin, J. Lerat, J. Vaze, M. Bourqui and F. Hendrickx</author>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>On the risk of obtaining misleading results by pooling streamflow data for trend analyses</title>
         <link>http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011WR011690</link>
         <description><![CDATA[Floods have broad impacts on nature, society, and the economy. The frequency and intensity of flood events are generally believed to increase with the anticipated changes in temperature and precipitation. Trend analyses are important tools to quantify these changes, but often, they provide inconclusive results, partly because of the limited data availability. One way to overcome this limitation is to pool data from different gauging stations. However, pooling data from different stations may lead to misleading results. For example, using pooled flood data Allamano et al. (2009a) found a considerable increase of flooding risks for Switzerland. Here we demonstrate that the previous finding of increased flooding risks was an artifact of the pooling of stations and the fact that the longer time series came from larger catchments, which tend to have lower values for specific peak flows than smaller catchments. Our results demonstrate the risk of obtaining incorrect statistical conclusions when statistical analyses and data selection are not considered with due care.]]></description>
         <author>D. Viviroli, B. Schädler, P. Schmocker-Fackel, M. Weiler and J. Seibert</author>
      </item>
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