References

1

Avissar, R., Conceptual aspects of a statistical-dynam ical approach to represent landscape subgrid-scale heterogeneities in atmospheric models, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 2729, 1992.

2

Avissar, R., Observations of leaf stomatal conductance at the canopy scale: An atmospheric modeling perspective, Boundary-Layer Meteorol., 64, 127, 1993.

3

Avissar, R., and R. A. Pielke, A parameterization of heterogeneous land surfaces for atmospheric numerical models and impact on regional meteorology, Monthly Weather Review, 117, 2113, 1989.

4

Betts, A. K., J. H. Ball, and A. C. M. Beljaars, Comparison between the land surface response of the ECMWF model and the FIFE-1987 data, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 119, 975, 1993.

5

Betts, A. K., J. H. Ball, A. C. M. Beljaars, M. J. Miller, and P. Viterbo, Coupling between land-surface, boundary-layer parameterizations and rainfall on local and regional scales: Lessons from the wet summer of 1993, Fifth Conference on Global Change Studies, Nashville, TN, Jan. 23-28, 1994, Amer. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, MA, 1994.

6

Bonan, G. B., Comparison of the land surface climatology of the National Center for Atmospheric Research community climate model 2 at R15 and T42 resolutions, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 10,357, 1994.

7

Bonan, G. B., D. Pollard, and S. L. Thompson, Influence of subgrid-scale heterogeneity in leaf area index, stomatal resistance, and soil moisture on grid-scale land-atmosphere interactions, J. Clim., 6, 1882, 1993.

8

Breon, F.-M., R. Frouin, and C. Gautier, Global shortwave energy budget at the Earth's surface from ERBE observations, J. Clim., 7, 309, 1994.

9

Brubaker, K. L., D. Entekhabi, and P. S. Eagleson, Esti mation of continental precipitation recycling, J. Clim., 6, 1077, 1993.

10

Chu, P.-S., Z.-P. Yu, and S. Hastenrath, Detecting cli mate change concurrent with deforestation in the Amazon Basin: Which way has it gone? Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 579, 1994.

11

Collins, D. C., and R. Avissar, An evaluation with the Fourier Amplitude Sensitivity Test (FAST) of which land-surface parameters are of greatest importance in atmo spheric modeling, J. Clim., 7, 681, 1994.

12

Cook, K. H., Mechanisms by which surface drying perturbs tropical precipitation fields, J. Clim., 7, 400, 1994.

13

Dalu, G. A., and R. A. Pielke, Vertical heat fluxes generated by mesoscale atmospheric flow induced by thermal inhomogeneities in the PBL, J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 919, 1992.

14

Darnell, W. L., W. F. Staylor, S. K. Gupta, N. A. Ritchey, and A. C. Wilber, Seasonal variation of surface radiation budget derived from International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project C1 data, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 15,741, 1992.

15

Dickinson, R. E., and P. J. Kennedy, Land surface hydrology in a General Circulation Model: Global and regional fields needed for validation, Surveys in Geophysics, 12, 115, 1991.

16

Dickinson, R. E. and P. J. Kennedy, Impacts on regional climate of Amazon deforestation, Geophysical Research Letters, 19, 1947, 1992.

17

Dirmeyer, P. A., Vegetation stress as a feedback mechanism in midlatitude drought, J. Clim., 7, 1463, 1994.

18

Eltahir, E. A. B., and R. L. Bras, A description of rainfall interception over large areas, J. Clim., 6, 1002, 1993a.

19

Eltahir, E. A. B., and R. L. Bras, On the response of the tropical atmosphere to large-scale deforestation, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 119, 779, 1993b.

20

Eltahir, E. A. B., and R. L. Bras, Precipitation recycling in the Amazon basin, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 120, 861, 1994.

21

Fennessy, M. J., J. L. Kinter III, B. Kirtman, L. Marx, S. Nigam, E. Schneider, J. Shukla, D. Straus, A. Vernekar, Y. Xue and J. Zhou, The simulated Indian monsoon: A GCM sensitivity study, J. Clim., 7, 33, 1994.

22

Gao, X., and S. Sorooshian, A stochastic precipitation disaggregation scheme for GCM applications, J. Clim., 7, 238, 1994.

23

Garratt, J. R., Incoming shortwave fluxes at the surface---A comparison of GCM results with observations, J. Clim., 7, 72, 1994.

24

Gates, W. L., AMIP: The atmospheric model intercomparison project, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 73, 1962, 1992.

25

Giorgi, F., C. S. Brodeur, and G. T. Bates, Regional climate change scenarios over the United States produced with a nested regional climate model, J. Clim., 7, 375, 1994a.

26

Giorgi, F., S. W. Hostetler, and C. S. Brodeur, Analy sis of the surface hydrology in a regional climate model, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 120, 161, 1994b.

27

Gutman, G. G., Global data on land surface parameters from NOAA AVHRR for use in numerical climate models, J. Clim., 7, 669, 1994.

28

Henderson-Sellers, A., Z.-L. Yang, and R. E. Dickinson, The Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parameterization Schemes, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 74, 1335, 1993a.

29

Henderson-Sellers, A., R. E. Dickinson, T. B. Durbidge, P. J. Kennedy, K. McGuffie, and A. J. Pitman, Tropical deforestation: Modeling local- to regional-scale climate change, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 7289, 1993b.

30

Johnson, K. D., D. Entekhabi, and P. S. Eagleson, The implementation and validation of improved land-surface hydrology in an atmospheric General Circulation Model, J. Clim., 6, 1009, 1993.

31

Koster, R. D., and M. J. Suarez, Modeling the land surface boundary in climate models as a composite of independent vegetation stands, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 2697, 1992.

32

Koster, R. D., and M. J. Suarez, The relative contributions of land and ocean processes to precipitation variability: Summary of a GCM study, GEWEX News, 1, Nov. 1994.

33

Lakhtakia, M., and T. T. Warner, A comparison of simple and complex treatments of surface hydrology and ther modynamics suitable for mesoscale atmospheric models, Monthly Weather Review, 122, 880, 1994.

34

Lare, A. R., and S. E. Nicholson, Contrasting conditions of surface water balance in wet years and dry years as a possible land surface-atmosphere feedback mechanism in the West African Sahel. J. Clim., 7, 653, 1994.

35

Li, B., and R. Avissar, The impact of spatial variability of land-surface characteristics on land-surface heat fluxes, J. Clim., 7, 527, 1994.

36

Liston, G. E., Y. C. Sud, and E. F. Wood, Evaluating GCM land surface hydrology parameterizations by computing river discharges using a runoff routing model: Application to the Mississippi Basin, J. Appl. Meteorol., 33, 394, 1994.

37

Miller, J. R., and G. L. Russell, The impact of global warming on river runoff, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 2757, 1992.

38

Milly, P. C. D., Climate, soil water storage, and the average

39

Milly, P. C. D., and K. A. Dunne, Sensitivity of the global water cycle to the water-holding capacity of land, J. Clim., 7, 506, 1994.

40

Mooney, H. A., and G. W. Koch, The impact of rising CO concentrations on the terrestrial biosphere, Ambio, 23, 74, 1994.

41

Nobre, C. A., P. J. Sellers, and J. Shukla, Amazon deforestation and regional climate change, J. Clim., 4, 957, 1991.

42

Pielke, R. A., G. A. Dalu, J. S. Snook, T. J. Lee, and T. G. F. Kittel, Nonlinear influence of mesoscale land use on weather and climate, J. Clim., 4, 1053, 1991.

43

Pielke, R. A., X. Zeng, T. J. Lee, and G. A. Dalu, Mesoscale fluxes over heterogeneous flat landscapes for use in larger scale models. Submitted to J. Hydrol.

44

Pinker, R. T., and I. Laszlo, Modeling surface solar irradiance for satellite applications on a global scale, J. Appl. Meteorol., 31, 194, 1992.

45

Pitman, A. J., A. Henderson-Sellers, F. Abramopoulos, R. Avissar, G. Bonan, A. Boone, R. E. Dickinson, M. Ek, D. Entekhabi, J. Famiglietti, J. R. Garratt, M. Frech, A. Hahmann, R. Koster, E. Kowalczyk, K. Laval, J. Lean, T. J. Lee, D. Lettenmaier, X. Liang, J-F. Mahfouf, L. Mahrt, P. C. D. Milly, K. Mitchell, N. de Noblet, J. Niolhan, H. Pan, R. Pielke, A. Robock, C. Rosenzweig, C. A. Shlosser, R. Scott, M. Suarez, S. Thompson, D. Verseghy, P. Wetzel, E. Wood, Y. Xue, Z-L. Yang, and L. Zhang, Results from off-line control simulations (phase 1a) Project for Intercomparison of Land-Surface Parameterization Schemes (PILPS), IGPO Publication Series, No. 7, 47 pp., 1993.

46

Prinn, R. G., The interactive atmosphere: Global atmo spheric biospheric chemistry, Ambio, 23, 50, 1994.

47

Randall, D. A., Harshvardhan, and D. A. Dazlich, Diurnal variability of the hydrological cycle in a General Circulation Model, J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 40, 1991.

48

Randall, D. A., R. D. Cess, J. P. Blanchet, G. J. Boer, D. A. Dazlich, A. D. Del Genio, M. Déqué, V. Dymnikov, V. Galin, S. J. Ghan, A. A. Lacis, H. Le Treut, Z.-X. Li, X.-Z. Liang, B. J. McAvaney, V. P. Meleshko, J. F. B. Mitchell, J.-J. Morcrette, G. L. Potter, L. Rikus, E. Roeckner, J. F. Royer, U. Schlese, D. A. Sheinin, J. Slingo, A. P. Sokolov, K. E. Taylor, W. M. Washington, R. T. Wetherald, I. Yagai, and M.-H. Zhang, Intercomparison and interpretation of surface energy fluxes in atmospheric General Circulation Models, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 3711, 1992.

49

Robock, A., R. P. Turco, M. A. Harwell, T. P. Ackerman, R. Andressen, H.-S. Shang, and M. V. K. Sivakumar, Use of general circulation model output in the creation of climate change scenarios for impact analysis, Climatic Change, 23, 293, 1993.

50

Running, S. W., T. R. Loveland, and L. L. Pierce, A vegetation classification logic based on remote sensing for use in global biogeochemical models, Ambio, 23, 77, 1994.

51

Schultz, P., E. J. Barron, and J. L. Sloan II, Assessment of NCAR general circulation model precipitation in comparison with observations, Global and Planetary Change, 97, 269, 1992.

52

Sellers, P. J., and F. G. Hall, FIFE in 1992: Results, scientific gains, and future research directions, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 19,091, 1992.

53

Sellers, P. J., M. D. Heiser, and F. G. Hall, Relations between surface conductance and Spectral Vegetation Indices at intermediate (100 m to 15 km) length scales, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 19,033, 1992.

54

Seth, A., F. Giorgi, and R. E. Dickinson, Simulating fluxes from heterogeneous land surfaces: Introducing a vectorized version of Biosphere-Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (VBATS), J. Geophys. Res., 99, 18,651, 1994.

55

Shuttleworth, W. J., Large-scale experimental and modeling studies of hydrological processes, Ambio, 23, 82, 1994.

56

Smith, C. B., M. N. Lakhtakia, W. J. Capehart, and T. N. Carlson, Initialization of soil-water content in regional-scale atmospheric prediction models, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 75, 585, 1994.

57

Tarpley, J. D., Monthly evapotranspiration from satellite and conventional meteorological observations, J. Clim., 7, 704, 1994.

58

Trenberth, K. E., Climate System Modeling, Cambridge Univ. Press, 788 pp., 1992.

59

Webb, R. S., and C. E. Rosenzweig, Specifying land surface characteristics in General Circulation Models: Soil pro file data set and derived water-holding capacities, Global Biochemical Cycles, 7, 97, 1993.

60

Wood, E. F., D. P. Lettenmaier, and V. G. Zartarian, A land-surface hydrology parameterization with subgrid variability for general circulation models, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 2717, 1992.

61

Xue, Y., P. J. Sellers, J. L. Kinter, and J. Shukla, A simplified biosphere model for climate studies, J. Clim., 4, 345, 1991.

62

Xue, Y., and J. Shukla, The influence of land-surface properties on Sahel climate. Part I: Desertification, J. Clim., 6, 2232, 1993.

63

Yanai, M., and C. Li, Mechanism of heating and the boundary layer over the Tibetan Plateau, Monthly Weather Review, 122, 305, 1994.

64

Zeng, X., and R. A. Pielke, Further study on predictability of surface thermally induced circulations. Submitted to J. Atmos. Sci., 1994.